📖 Introduction
The period from 1857 to 1917 is a turning point in Indian history. It begins with the First War of
Independence (1857) — the first major revolt against British rule — and leads to the birth and
growth of organized nationalist movements. By 1917, India's freedom struggle had evolved from armed revolts
to mass political movements.
⚔️ PART 1: The First War of Independence, 1857
The Revolt of 1857 is known by several names: the Sepoy Mutiny (by the British), the
First War of Independence (by Indian nationalists), or a national
uprising. It is considered the first organized and widespread resistance
against British rule in India.
📅 Key Date
The revolt began on
10 May 1857 at
Meerut, when Indian soldiers (sepoys)
openly revolted. It quickly spread across North India. The last Mughal Emperor,
Bahadur Shah
Zafar, became the symbolic leader of the revolt.
Causes of the Revolt of 1857
A. Political Causes
- Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie): If a ruler didn't have a natural (biological) heir,
his territory was annexed by the British. States annexed this way include: Satara (1848), Jaitpur,
Sambalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854). The Rani of Jhansi (Lakshmibai) was
not allowed to adopt a son, which caused great resentment.
- Subsidiary Alliance: Many Indian rulers had been forced into the Subsidiary Alliance,
making them dependent on the British and slowly losing their independence.
- Disrespect to Indian Rulers: Nana Saheb (the adopted son of the last Peshwa) was denied
his pension and proper recognition. Bahadur Shah Zafar was told that his successors would no longer be
able to use the Red Fort — this deeply hurt Indian pride.
- British plan to end Mughal dynasty: The British announced that Bahadur Shah Zafar's
successors would not bear the title of "King" — a great insult to the Mughal dynasty and its followers.
B. Economic Causes
- Drain of Wealth: British economic policies systematically drained India's wealth to
England. Dadabhai Naoroji later called this the "Drain Theory."
- Ruin of Indian Industries: British cheap machine-made goods flooded the Indian market,
destroying traditional industries like handloom weaving (especially cotton). Indian artisans were left
unemployed.
- Exploitative Land Revenue Systems: The Permanent Settlement, Mahalwari, and Ryotwari
systems imposed heavy taxes on farmers. Many peasants lost their land to zamindars and moneylenders who
paid taxes to the British.
- Unemployment of Indian Soldiers: Many Indian soldiers (sepoys) lost their jobs after
the annexation of Indian kingdoms — these armies were disbanded by the British.
C. Socio-Religious Causes
- Fear of forcible conversion to Christianity: British missionaries were active in India,
and many Indians feared that the British intended to destroy Hinduism and Islam and convert everyone to
Christianity.
- Interference with Indian customs: Social reforms like the abolition of Sati
(1829) and the Widow Remarriage Act (1856), while progressive, were seen
by many conservative Indians as attacks on their religion and tradition.
- Religious converts could inherit property: A 1850 law (Act XXI) allowed a person who
converted to Christianity to claim ancestral property — this frightened many Indians.
- Threat to caste system: The British introduced railways and sea voyages; crossing the
seas was considered an act that would break caste, causing social unrest among higher castes.
D. Military Causes (Immediate Cause)
- Greased Cartridges — The Immediate/Proximate Cause: Indian sepoys were given new
Enfield rifles in 1857. The cartridges for these rifles were rumoured to be greased with cow fat
(offensive to Hindus) and pig fat (offensive to Muslims). Soldiers had to
bite off the tip of the cartridge before loading it. This was seen as a deliberate British attempt to
destroy the religion of both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
- Low Pay and Differential Treatment: Indian sepoys were paid much less than British
soldiers and were denied promotions and higher ranks.
- General Service Enlistment Act (1856): Required Indian soldiers to serve overseas if
needed — crossing the sea was taboo for many high-caste Hindus.
📷 Image: Important Centres and Leaders of the 1857 Revolt
A map of India showing the major centres of the 1857 revolt (Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur,
Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Arrah) with small portraits or icons of the key leaders.
AI Prompt: "Create an educational historical map of India for ICSE Class 10 showing
the major centres of the Revolt of 1857. Mark the following cities with colored dots and labels: Meerut
(starting point), Delhi (Bahadur Shah Zafar), Kanpur/Cawnpore (Nana Saheb), Lucknow (Begum Hazrat
Mahal), Jhansi (Rani Lakshmibai), Bareilly (Khan Bahadur Khan), Arrah (Kunwar Singh). Use a vintage map
style with warm sepia tones. Title: 'Major Centres of the Revolt of 1857'. Educational school notes
style."
Key Leaders of the 1857 Revolt
| Leader |
Region / Role |
| Bahadur Shah Zafar |
Delhi — Symbolic leader of the revolt; last Mughal Emperor |
| Rani Lakshmibai |
Jhansi — Led the battle against the British; killed in battle at Gwalior |
| Nana Saheb |
Kanpur — Led the revolt; was denied his pension by the British |
| Tantia Tope |
Kanpur & Central India — Military commander of the revolt |
| Begum Hazrat Mahal |
Lucknow — Led the revolt after her husband Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was deposed |
| Kunwar Singh |
Arrah (Bihar) — Elderly zamindar who led the revolt at age 80 |
| Khan Bahadur Khan |
Bareilly — Led the revolt in the Rohilkhand region |
Consequences / Results of the Revolt of 1857
- End of East India Company Rule: The British East India Company's rule over India ended.
India was now placed directly under the British Crown by the Government of
India Act, 1858.
- Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1858): Queen Victoria became the Empress of India. She
proclaimed that henceforth no more territory would be annexed, Indian customs and religion would be
respected, and Indians would be given equal treatment.
- Change in Army Organization: The British reorganized the Indian army — they
increased the proportion of British soldiers and divided Indian soldiers by caste,
religion, and region to prevent unity.
- End of Mughal Dynasty: Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried and exiled to Rangoon (Burma),
where he died in 1862. This ended the Mughal dynasty forever.
- Rise of Nationalism: The revolt inspired future leaders and showed that Indians could
challenge the British — planting the seeds of Indian nationalism.
📷 Image: Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi – Heroine of 1857
A portrait or artistic illustration of Rani Lakshmibai (Rani of Jhansi) in warrior
attire, holding a sword, symbolising her brave resistance against the British during the Revolt of 1857.
AI Prompt: "Create a respectful, historically inspired portrait illustration of Rani
Lakshmibai of Jhansi, the warrior queen who fought the British in 1857. Show her in royal
Maratha/warrior attire with a sword in hand, mounted on a white horse OR in a heroic standing pose. Warm
sepia/golden tones. Add a label: 'Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi (1828–1858) – Heroine of the Revolt of
1857'. Educational illustration style suitable for ICSE Class 10 history notes."
🌱 PART 2: Factors Leading to the Growth of Nationalism
After 1857, several factors gradually united Indians against British rule and gave birth to Indian
nationalism.
1. Economic Exploitation by the British
- Drain of Wealth: Dadabhai Naoroji exposed in his book "Poverty and Un-British Rule
in India" how India's wealth was being systematically drained to England through trade,
profits, and administrative costs without any equivalent return.
- Indian raw materials were exported cheaply to England; finished goods were sold back at high prices,
destroying Indian industries.
- The deindustrialisation of India — the collapse of cotton, silk, and handicraft
industries — created widespread poverty and resentment.
2. Repressive Colonial Policies
- Arms Act (1878): Indians were prohibited from keeping weapons without a licence, while
Europeans were exempt. This humiliated Indians and caused resentment.
- Vernacular Press Act (1878): Lord Lytton gagged the Indian-language press — newspapers
in Indian languages were censored and could be suppressed if they published anything against the
British. This Act was widely condemned and later repealed by Lord Ripon in 1882.
- Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883): Viceroy Lord Ripon introduced a bill allowing Indian
judges to try European British subjects in criminal cases — Europeans violently protested. When the bill
was amended to exclude this right, Indians felt deeply humiliated and this stirred the spirit of
nationalism.
3. Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Reform movements of the 19th century awakened national consciousness among Indians:
| Organisation / Leader |
Founded |
Contribution to Nationalism |
| Brahmo Samaj (Raja Rammohan Roy) |
1828 |
Attacked caste discrimination, child marriage, Sati; promoted rational thinking and education;
championed women's rights and widow remarriage
|
| Satyashodhak Samaj (Jyotirao Phule) |
1873 |
Fought against caste discrimination and untouchability; opened the first school for girls and
low-caste children in Pune; pioneered women's education in India alongside Savitribai Phule
|
| Arya Samaj (Swami Dayanand Saraswati) |
1875 |
"India for Indians" — promoted the greatness of ancient Indian culture and opposed foreign
domination; called for a return to Vedic values |
| Ramakrishna Mission (Swami Vivekananda) |
1897 |
Proclaimed the greatness of Indian spirituality; awakened pride in Indian heritage; addressed
the Parliament of Religions (1893) |
| Aligarh Movement (Sir Syed Ahmed Khan) |
1875 |
Promoted modern education among Muslims; founded MAO College (later AMU) |
4. Role of the Press and Literature
- Newspapers like Amrita Bazar Patrika, Kesari (Tilak), The
Hindu, and Bengalee (Surendranath Banerjee) spread nationalist ideas to
homes across India.
- Books and writings by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Anandamath, Vande Mataram) and
poets like Rabindranath Tagore sparked national pride and love for the motherland.
- Despite the Vernacular Press Act trying to suppress them, Indian language newspapers played a crucial
role in uniting people against British rule.
5. Role of Western Education
- Ironically, the English education introduced by the British gave Indians access to ideas of
liberty, democracy, and equality from Western thinkers like Rousseau, Locke, and John
Stuart Mill.
- The educated middle class — trained in English — became the leaders of the national movement.
- The same education united Indians from different states, religions, and castes by giving them a common
language (English) to communicate and organize.
🏛️ PART 3: Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC)
Precursors to the INC
Several organisations paved the way for the INC:
- Landholders' Society, Calcutta (1838) — The first political association in India,
representing the interests of zamindars and talukdars.
- East India Association, London (1866) — Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji.
Aimed at placing the true state of affairs in India before the British public and Parliament. Naoroji
believed the British were basically just and could be persuaded.
- Indian Association / Indian National Association, Calcutta (1876) — Founded by
Surendranath Banerjee. Aimed at creating a strong body of public opinion, unity of
Indians irrespective of religion, and promotion of Hindu-Muslim relations. It launched agitations
against the Arms Act, Vernacular Press Act, and ICS age-limit reduction.
- Indian National Conference (1883) — Surendranath Banerjee convened this all-India
conference at Calcutta; it offered an organizational model for a national body. It merged with
the INC in December 1886.
📌 Why are Precursors Important?
These bodies showed that Indians could organise politically. When A.O. Hume formed the INC in 1885, he built
upon this already-existing tradition of political association.
Foundation of the INC (1885)
- The Indian National Congress was founded on 28 December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal
Sanskrit College, Bombay (Mumbai).
- It was founded by Allan Octavian Hume (A.O. Hume), a retired British civil servant.
- Womesh Chandra Bonerjee was the first President of the INC.
- The first session was attended by 72 delegates from across India.
- The Second Session (1886) was held in Calcutta and was presided over
by Dadabhai Naoroji.
💡 Why did A.O. Hume found the INC?
A.O. Hume, a British officer, observed the widespread discontent among Indians. He believed that a
safety valve was needed — an organization where educated Indians could express their
grievances peacefully, rather than resorting to violent revolts. He founded the INC to provide this platform
and to foster a sense of national unity.
Immediate Objectives of the INC
- To promote friendship and a spirit of unity among all Indians irrespective of caste,
religion, or region.
- To develop and consolidate national unity.
- To ascertain and present the demands of Indians before the government in a peaceful and
constitutional manner.
- To train and organize public opinion regarding matters of public importance.
- To discuss and plan Indian political, social, and economic problems.
📷 Image: First Session of INC, Bombay, 28 December 1885
A historical painting or illustration depicting the first session of the Indian
National Congress held on 28 December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay, with delegates
seated in rows and A.O. Hume and Womesh Chandra Bonerjee prominent on stage.
AI Prompt: "Create a historical illustration of the First Session of the Indian
National Congress held on 28 December 1885 in Bombay (Mumbai). Show a grand hall with delegates (72 of
them) seated in formal colonial-era attire. On the stage, show A.O. Hume (a British officer in uniform)
and Womesh Chandra Bonerjee (first president, in Indian lawyer attire). Warm sepia/vintage oil-painting
style. Caption: 'First Session of Indian National Congress – Bombay, 28 December 1885'. Educational
history style."
📅 PART 4: Phases of the Indian National Movement (1885–1917)
Phase 1: The Early Nationalists / Moderates (1885–1905)
Who were they? The early leaders of the INC were called Moderates because
they believed in peaceful, constitutional methods — petitions, prayers, and resolutions — to win limited
reforms from the British.
Key Leaders: "The Trio"
- Dadabhai Naoroji — Called the "Grand Old Man of India"; exposed the Drain of Wealth
theory; three-time President of INC; first Indian to be elected to the British Parliament.
- Gopal Krishna Gokhale — A brilliant economist; known for his powerful speeches in the
legislative council; Gandhiji's political mentor.
- Surendranath Banerjee — Called "Rashtraguru" (Nation's Teacher); founded the Indian
National Association; a great orator.
Methods of the Moderates
- Petitions, memorials, and resolutions sent to the British government.
- Sending representatives to England to lobby the Parliament.
- Writing articles and giving speeches to educate the public.
Achievements of the Moderates
- Highlighted the economic exploitation of India by the British (Drain of Wealth).
- The Indian Councils Act, 1892 was partially due to pressure from the INC.
- Laid the groundwork for the national movement by creating political awareness.
⚠️ Criticism of the Moderates
The Moderates were criticized for being too dependent on the British, too slow, and for representing only
the educated elite. The radical nationalists called their approach "political mendicancy" (begging for
rights). Their methods were dubbed "3 Ps" — Petition, Prayer, Protest.
📷 Image: The Moderate Trio – Naoroji, Gokhale, and Banerjee
A composite portrait showing the three main Moderate leaders of the INC: Dadabhai
Naoroji (Grand Old Man of India), Gopal Krishna Gokhale (Gandhi's mentor), and Surendranath Banerjee
(Rashtraguru).
AI Prompt: "Create an educational composite portrait illustration for ICSE Class 10
history notes titled 'Leaders of the Moderate Phase (1885–1905)'. Show three oval portrait frames side
by side:
1. Dadabhai Naoroji – aged, dignified, white beard, labeled 'Grand Old Man of India'
2. Gopal Krishna Gokhale – calm scholarly expression, labeled 'Gandhi's Political Mentor'
3. Surendranath Banerjee – strong orator look, labeled 'Rashtraguru (Nation's Teacher)'
Vintage sepia style with dark blue/brown borders. Clean educational design."
Phase 2: The Radical Nationalists / Extremists (1905–1916)
Who were they? A new group of more aggressive leaders who rejected the Moderate approach.
They wanted complete self-rule (Swaraj) and used mass agitation and non-cooperation as methods. They are
called Radicals or Extremists (Garam Dal).
Key Leaders: "Lal-Bal-Pal"
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Lokmanya Tilak) — Maharashtra; declared "Swaraj is my birthright
and I shall have it!"; started public Ganesh Chaturthi and Shivaji
Festival celebrations to unite people; wrote for Kesari newspaper.
- Bipin Chandra Pal — Bengal; great orator; promoted Swadeshi movement.
- Lala Lajpat Rai — Punjab; known as "Punjab Kesari (Lion of Punjab)"; strong nationalist
leader.
Causes of the Rise of Radicals — The Partition of Bengal (1905)
- In 1905, Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal into two parts — West Bengal (Hindus + Bihar +
Orissa) and East Bengal (Muslims). The official reason was administrative convenience, but Indians saw
it as a British attempt to divide Hindus and Muslims and weaken the nationalist movement.
- The Partition of Bengal caused massive protests and gave rise to the Swadeshi Movement
— a movement to boycott British goods and use only Indian-made products.
Methods of the Radicals
- Swaraj (Self-rule) as the immediate goal.
- Swadeshi — Use of Indian-made goods; boycott of British goods.
- Boycott — Boycott of British goods, schools, courts, and services.
- National Education — Setting up national schools teaching Indian culture.
- Mass movements and public agitation.
The Surat Split (1907)
- At the Surat Session of the INC (1907), the Moderates and Radicals clashed violently over leadership and
goals. The INC split into two — Moderates (led by Gokhale) and Radicals (led by Tilak). This division
weakened the Congress significantly.
📷 Image: Lal-Bal-Pal – The Radical Trio
A composite portrait showing the three radical leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab
Kesari), Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Lokmanya), and Bipin Chandra Pal, who together formed the trinity known as
'Lal-Bal-Pal' and demanded complete Swaraj.
AI Prompt: "Create an educational composite portrait illustration for ICSE Class 10
history notes titled 'Lal-Bal-Pal – The Radical Trio (1905–1916)'. Show three oval portrait frames:
1. LALA LAJPAT RAI – strong heroic face, labeled 'Lal – Lion of Punjab'
2. BAL GANGADHAR TILAK – traditional Maratha turban/topi, labeled 'Bal – Lokmanya Tilak'
3. BIPIN CHANDRA PAL – bearded intellectual, labeled 'Pal – Great Orator'
Above them, a banner: 'Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!' (Tilak's famous quote). Warm
saffron/orange colors, patriotic feel. Educational history notes style."
Formation of the Muslim League (1906)
- The All India Muslim League was founded in 1906 at Dhaka by
Nawab Salimullah Khan of Dhaka, with support from Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk and the Aga
Khan.
- The British supported this by granting separate electorates for Muslims in the Indian
Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) — Muslims would elect their own representatives separately.
Objectives of the Muslim League
- To protect and promote the political rights and interests of Muslims.
- To foster loyalty to the British government among Muslims.
- To prevent Muslims from joining the INC and its anti-British activities.
The Lucknow Pact (1916)
- In 1916, the INC and the Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact — a landmark agreement
that showed Hindu-Muslim unity.
- Both organizations agreed to cooperate in the demand for self-government and accepted separate
electorates for Muslims as a compromise.
- Tilak (INC) and Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Muslim League) played key roles in this agreement.
Significance of the Lucknow Pact
- Hindu-Muslim Unity: For the first time, the INC and Muslim League came together on a
common political platform. Both communities agreed to compromise for the common good — the Congress
accepted separate electorates for Muslims, while the League accepted the principle of majority rule.
- Unity Within the Congress: The Lucknow Session also healed the rift within the
Congress between the Moderates and the Assertive Nationalists (Extremists). After the
Surat Split of 1907, both wings had been moving apart; in 1916 they reunited, greatly strengthening the
Congress.
- Pressure on the British Government: The combined strength of a united INC + Muslim
League, together with the reunited Congress, removed the British Government's justification for delaying
reforms. This contributed directly to the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919).
- Key representatives: Bal Gangadhar Tilak represented the INC and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah represented the Muslim League in framing the Pact.
📝 Quick Revision – Key Facts
| Topic |
Key Fact |
| Revolt of 1857 began |
10 May 1857 at Meerut |
| Immediate cause of revolt |
Greased cartridges (Enfield rifle) — cow and pig fat |
| Doctrine of Lapse |
Lord Dalhousie; states without natural heirs annexed |
| Result of 1857 revolt |
End of East India Company rule; India under British Crown; Government of India Act, 1858 |
| INC founded |
28 December 1885, Bombay, by A.O. Hume |
| First INC President |
Womesh Chandra Bonerjee |
| Moderates (3 Ps) |
Petition, Prayer, Protest; leaders: Naoroji, Gokhale, Banerjee |
| Partition of Bengal |
1905, by Lord Curzon |
| Radicals (Garam Dal) |
Tilak, Bipin Pal, Lajpat Rai; demanded Swaraj |
| Surat Split |
1907 — INC split into Moderates and Radicals |
| Muslim League founded |
1906, Dhaka |
| Lucknow Pact |
1916 — INC and Muslim League agreement |
| Vernacular Press Act |
1878 (Lord Lytton) — gag on Indian-language press |
| Arms Act |
1878 — Indians prohibited from keeping weapons |
⚠️ Most Frequently Asked in ICSE Board Exams
- What were the causes of the Revolt of 1857? (Political, Economic, Social, Military)
- What were the consequences of the Revolt of 1857?
- Who founded the INC? What were its immediate aims?
- Compare the aims and methods of Moderates vs Radicals.
- Why was the Partition of Bengal done and what was its impact?
- What factors led to the Growth of Nationalism in India?
- What was the Lucknow Pact (1916)?
🌟 Chapter Summary
- The Revolt of 1857 had political, economic, social, and military causes. The
immediate spark was the greased cartridges. Its result was the transfer of power from East India
Company to the British Crown.
- Nationalism grew due to: economic exploitation, repressive laws (Arms Act, Vernacular Press Act),
socio-religious movements, the role of the press, and Western education.
- The INC was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume in Bombay. Its initial aims were to
promote national unity and present demands peacefully.
- Moderates (1885–1905): Naoroji, Gokhale, Banerjee — used constitutional methods.
Criticized for being too slow.
- Radicals (1905–1916): Tilak, Pal, Lajpat Rai — demanded Swaraj; used Swadeshi and
Boycott. Partition of Bengal (1905) triggered their rise.
- Surat Split (1907) divided Congress. Muslim League (1906) was
formed. Lucknow Pact (1916) temporarily united INC and League.
