📖 Introduction
The 20th century was shaped by devastating world wars, the rise of dangerous ideologies, and the creation of
international organisations to preserve peace. This chapter deals with the post-WWI crisis — the
rise of Fascism and Nazism, the causes and consequences of World War II,
the emergence of the United Nations, and the beginning of the Cold War.
⚔️ PART 1: World War I (1914–1918)
Causes of World War I
- Nationalism: Strong nationalist sentiments in Europe, especially in the Balkans,
created tensions. Serbia's desire to unite all Slavic people threatened Austria-Hungary's empire.
- Alliance System: Europe was divided into two armed camps — the Triple
Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (France,
Russia, Britain). A war between any two countries automatically drew in all allies.
- Imperialism: European nations competed intensely for colonies in Africa and Asia,
causing frequent disputes and rivalries.
- Militarism: European countries, especially Germany, had been rapidly expanding their
armies and navies. Arms races intensified international tensions.
- Immediate Cause – The Sarajevo Crisis: On 28 June 1914,
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated at
Sarajevo, Bosnia. The assassination was organized by a secret Serb nationalist society
called the "Black Hand". Austria served an ultimatum of 11 demands on Serbia on
23 July 1914. When Serbia's reply was unsatisfactory, Austria declared war on Serbia on
28 July 1914 — triggering the chain of alliances:
- Russia mobilised to support Serbia →
Germany declared war on Russia (1 Aug) and on France (3 Aug).
- Germany marched through Belgium → Britain
declared war on Germany (4 August 1914).
- Japan joined the Allied side to capture German
colonies in the Pacific. Turkey and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers.
- Allied Powers: Britain, France,
Russia, Japan, later USA (1917). Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria.
Course and End of World War I
- The war began in August 1914 and lasted until November 1918.
- The two sides were the Allied Powers (France, Britain, Russia, later USA) vs. the
Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire).
- The USA entered the war in 1917, turning the tide in favour of the Allies.
- Germany signed the Armistice on 11 November 1918, ending the war.
Results of World War I
1. The Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919)
The peace conference was held at Paris. The key decision-makers were Woodrow Wilson (USA),
Lloyd George (Britain), and Georges Clemenceau (France). The terms were
harsh on Germany:
- Germany was declared guilty of aggression (War Guilt Clause — Article 231).
- Germany was required to pay war reparations of $33 billion.
- The Rhineland was demilitarised.
- Germany lost territory: Alsace-Lorraine to France; Eupen to Belgium; Schleswig to
Denmark; parts of Prussia to Poland.
- The Saar coal mines were given to France for 15 years.
- Germany lost all her colonies (given to Allied powers as mandates; Germany's Pacific
colonies went to Japan).
- The German Army was limited to 1,00,000 soldiers; navy to 15,000 men and 24 ships; Air
Force and submarines were banned.
- The independence of Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia was affirmed.
- This humiliating treaty planted the seeds of revenge in Germany — a key cause of World War
II.
2. Fall of Empires and New Nations
- Three dynasties were destroyed: the Romanovs in Russia (during the war itself), the
Hohenzollerns in Germany, and the Habsburgs in Austria-Hungary.
- The Ottoman Empire collapsed. New independent states emerged: Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland,
Austria, Hungary.
- The war gave a serious blow to autocratic monarchies and led to the growth of democracy in Europe.
3. Formation of the League of Nations (1920)
Proposed by US President Woodrow Wilson as part of his Fourteen Points, the League was
established in 1920 to maintain world peace. Its aims and objectives included:
- All member-states were prohibited from entering secret treaties or alliances.
- Member-states were to limit their armies and not maintain huge warships or destructive
armaments.
- All states were to respect each other's independence and territorial integrity.
- All international disputes were to be referred to the League for peaceful settlement.
- Member-states were to take collective action against any state that disturbed world
peace.
- To promote cultural, social, and economic cooperation among member-states.
⚠️ Why did the League Fail?
- The USA never joined despite Wilson's proposal — the US Senate refused to ratify.
- It had no standing army to enforce decisions.
- When Japan captured Manchuria (1931) and Italy conquered Ethiopia (1935), the League took no
effective action.
- It ultimately failed to prevent World War II (1939).
4. Enormous Human Loss
- Over 17 million people died — soldiers and civilians — making it one of the deadliest
conflicts in human history to that point.
- The post-war period saw the rise of the USA as a world power, surpassing Europe
militarily and economically.
⚠️ Note for ICSE Exam
The ICSE syllabus requires knowledge of WWI's
causes, results, and the Treaty of
Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) is also the key link to the
rise of Hitler
and WWII.
✊ PART 2: Rise of Dictatorships – Fascism and Nazism
Why did Dictatorships Rise After World War I?
The aftermath of World War I (1914–18) created conditions that allowed dangerous ideologies to flourish:
- Harsh Treaty of Versailles (1919): Germany was blamed entirely for WWI (the "war guilt
clause") and forced to pay enormous reparations, disarm its army, and lose territory. This humiliated
and angered the German people.
- Economic Hardship: The Great Depression (1929) caused massive unemployment and poverty
across Europe, making people desperate for strong leadership.
- Weak Democratic Governments: The Weimar Republic in Germany and parliamentary
government in Italy were unstable and unable to solve economic problems.
- Fear of Communism: The middle classes and industrialists feared a Communist revolution
(like the Russian Revolution of 1917) and supported right-wing strongmen who promised to crush
Communism.
Rise of Fascism in Italy – Benito Mussolini
Fascism is a political ideology that believes in a strong, centralized government led by a
dictator, extreme nationalism, suppression of opposition, and glorification of the state over the
individual. The term comes from the Italian word fasces (a bundle of rods — symbol of strength
through unity).
Causes for the Rise of Fascism in Italy
- "Mutilated Victory": Italy had fought on the Allied side in WWI but received much less
territory than promised by the Treaty of London (1915). Italians felt cheated — they called it a
"mutilated victory."
- Economic problems: Unemployment, inflation, and poverty caused massive discontent after
WWI.
- Political instability: Italy had many weak coalition governments that could not solve
its problems.
- Fear of a Communist revolution.
- Role of Mussolini: Benito Mussolini (called Il Duce — "The Leader") founded
the Fascist Party in 1919 and promised to restore Italy's glory. He organized the March on Rome
(October 1922) with his "Black Shirts" (Squadrismo), and the king appointed him Prime
Minister. He soon became a dictator.
Features of Mussolini's Fascist Ideology
- Extreme nationalism and imperialism — glorifying the Roman Empire.
- Total authority of the state — "everything within the state, nothing against the state, nothing outside
the state."
- One-party rule; all opposition parties banned.
- Cult of the leader (Mussolini).
- Glorification of war and military strength.
- Anti-Communism and opposition to democracy.
Rise of Nazism in Germany – Adolf Hitler
Nazism (National Socialism) was the extreme form of Fascism in Germany, with additional
emphasis on racial superiority — specifically, the idea that the "Aryan race" (Germans) was the master race
and that Jews, Roma, and others were inferior and responsible for Germany's problems.
Causes for the Rise of Nazism in Germany
- Humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles: Germany lost 1/7th of its territory, its
colonies, and its military power, and was forced to pay massive war reparations. This bred deep anger.
- Economic devastation: Hyperinflation in 1923 (a loaf of bread cost millions of marks!)
and mass unemployment during the Great Depression (1929) made Germans desperate.
- Weakness of the Weimar Republic: The democratic government was unstable and
ineffective.
- Role of Adolf Hitler: Hitler (called der Führer — "The Leader") was a
brilliant, hypnotic orator. He rose to lead the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party).
He became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933 and soon established a total
dictatorship.
- Propaganda and Scapegoating: Hitler blamed Germany's problems entirely on Jews and
Communists, exploiting existing anti-Semitism.
Features of Hitler's Nazi Ideology
- Racial ideology: Belief in the superiority of the "Aryan race"; Jews, Slavs, Roma were
declared inferior. This led to the Holocaust — the genocide of 6 million Jews.
- Extreme German nationalism — "Deutschland über alles" (Germany above all).
- A single-party totalitarian state with absolute power for the Führer.
- Militarism and aggressive expansionism — to create "Lebensraum" (living space) in Eastern Europe.
- Violent anti-Communism and anti-democracy.
Comparison: Fascism vs Nazism
| Feature |
Fascism (Italy – Mussolini) |
Nazism (Germany – Hitler) |
| Country |
Italy |
Germany |
| Leader |
Benito Mussolini (Il Duce) |
Adolf Hitler (Der Führer) |
| Party |
National Fascist Party |
National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) |
| Rise to power |
1922 (March on Rome) |
1933 (appointed Chancellor) |
| Racial ideology |
Not central (race not emphasized as much) |
Central — Aryan supremacy; Anti-Semitism; Holocaust |
| Similarities |
Both were totalitarian dictatorships; anti-communist; anti-democratic;
ultra-nationalist; one-party rule; glorification of the state and the leader; militarism and
expansionism. |
📷 Image: Mussolini (Fascism) and Hitler (Nazism) – Portrait Comparison
A side-by-side portrait illustration showing Benito Mussolini (Il Duce, Italy) and
Adolf Hitler (Der Führer, Germany) — the two key dictators whose ideologies led to World War II.
AI Prompt: "Create an educational side-by-side portrait illustration for ICSE Class
10 history notes comparing the two dictators of WWII:
Left panel:
- BENITO MUSSOLINI labeled 'Il Duce – Fascism – Italy (1922)'
- Show him in military uniform with raised chin, proud authoritative pose
Right panel:
- ADOLF HITLER labeled 'Der Führer – Nazism – Germany (1933)'
- Show him in Nazi uniform with raised fist, hypnotic orator pose
Between them, a divider with text 'Both: Totalitarian Dictators – Anti-Communist – Ultranationalist –
Led to WWII'
Dark, dramatic tones with historical accuracy. Educational ICSE history style."
⚔️ PART 2: World War II (1939–1945)
Causes of World War II
1. Humiliation by the Treaty of Versailles (1919)
- The Treaty of Versailles imposed humiliating conditions on Germany (war guilt, reparations, disarmament,
loss of territory). This created resentment that Hitler exploited to rise to power and eventually
reverse the treaty's terms.
2. Rise of Fascism and Nazism
- Hitler's aggressive foreign policy aimed to break the Treaty of Versailles, reunite German-speaking
peoples (Anschluss with Austria, 1938), and expand German territory.
- Mussolini sought to revive the Roman Empire in Africa and Europe.
3. Policy of Appeasement
- Britain and France adopted a policy of Appeasement — giving in to Hitler's demands to
avoid a war. This was seen at the Munich Agreement (September 1938) where Britain and
France allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia) in the hope that he would be
satisfied. He was not — and this only encouraged further aggression.
4. Failure of the League of Nations
- The League of Nations (formed after WWI to maintain peace) failed because:
- The USA never joined it (Congress refused to
ratify).
- It had no military force of its own to enforce its
decisions.
- It could not stop Japan's invasion of Manchuria
(1931) or Italy's invasion of Ethiopia (1935).
5. Japanese Aggression and Formation of the Axis Powers
- Japan pursued an aggressive expansionist policy in Asia — invading Manchuria (1931) and then China
(1937).
- The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis (Axis Powers) was formed: Germany, Italy, and Japan. The
opposing side — Britain, France, USSR, and USA — were the Allied Powers.
6. Hitler's Invasion of Poland – The Immediate Cause (1 September 1939)
- On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Britain and France had guaranteed Poland's
independence. They declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939 — and World War II
officially began.
7. Attack on Pearl Harbour (7 December 1941)
- Japan launched a surprise attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii on 7
December 1941, bringing the United States into the war on the side of the Allies.
📷 Image: The Allied and Axis Powers in World War II
A world map highlighting the Allied powers (in blue) and the Axis powers (in red)
during WWII, showing the major theatres of war in Europe and the Pacific.
AI Prompt: "Create an educational historical world map for ICSE Class 10 showing the
Allied Powers and Axis Powers in World War II. Color Allied Powers (UK, USA, USSR, France, India etc.)
in blue and Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) in red. Mark key battle locations: London, Stalingrad,
Normandy (D-Day), Pearl Harbor, Hiroshima. Label the map 'World War II: Allied vs Axis Powers'. Include
a color legend. Clean, educational, vintage-style world map."
End of World War II and Key Events
- Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 1945): The USA dropped an atom bomb on
Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 and another on Nagasaki on 9 August 1945.
Hundreds of thousands were killed instantly. Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945 (V-J
Day).
- Germany had already surrendered on 7 May 1945 (V-E Day) after Hitler committed suicide
on 30 April 1945.
- The war ended in the complete defeat of the Axis Powers.
Consequences of World War II
- Massive Human Loss: Over 70 million people died — soldiers and civilians. The Holocaust
killed 6 million Jews.
- Formation of the United Nations (1945): The UN replaced the failed League of Nations to
maintain world peace.
- Beginning of the Cold War: A new rivalry between the USA (Capitalist
bloc) and the USSR (Communist bloc) divided the world into two camps.
- Nuclear Age: The use of atomic bombs began the nuclear arms race.
- Independence movements: Asian and African colonies demanded independence — India got
independence in 1947.
- Division of Germany: Germany was divided into West Germany (under USA/UK/France) and
East Germany (under USSR).
📷 Image: The Atomic Bomb – Hiroshima (6 August 1945)
A historical educational illustration of the mushroom cloud from the atomic bomb
dropped on Hiroshima, Japan on 6 August 1945 — the event that ended World War II in the Pacific theatre
and began the nuclear age.
AI Prompt: "Create an educational, somber historical illustration for ICSE Class 10
history notes showing the aftermath of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. Show a stylized
mushroom cloud rising above a city outline (do not show graphic violence). Include the label 'Hiroshima
Atomic Bomb – 6 August 1945 – Beginning of the Nuclear Age'. The mood should be solemn and reflective,
conveying the gravity of the event. Include a small text: 'Japan surrendered 15 August 1945 – WWII
ended'. Historical, educational illustration style."
❄️ PART 3: The Cold War
The Cold War was the state of political and military tension between the USA (and
its Western allies) and the USSR (and its Communist allies) that lasted from
approximately 1945 to 1991. It was called "cold" because the two superpowers never directly fought each
other — but competed through proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, and the arms race.
- USA represented Capitalism, Democracy, and the free-market system.
- USSR (Soviet Union) represented Communism and a state-controlled
economy.
- The world was divided into two blocs — Western Bloc (USA, Western Europe — NATO) and
Eastern Bloc (USSR, Eastern Europe — Warsaw Pact).
- Features of the Cold War: Arms Race (nuclear weapons buildup), Space Race, proxy wars (Korea, Vietnam),
espionage (CIA vs KGB), Berlin Wall (built 1961).
- India under Nehru followed a policy of Non-Alignment — not joining either bloc. This
led to the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
- The Cold War ended with the dissolution of the USSR in 1991.
📷 Image: The Cold War – USA vs USSR (1945–1991)
An infographic comparing the two Cold War superpowers: USA (Capitalism, NATO, Western
Bloc) vs USSR (Communism, Warsaw Pact, Eastern Bloc), with the Berlin Wall as the symbol of the divide
and symbols of the Space Race and Arms Race.
AI Prompt: "Create an educational Cold War comparison infographic for ICSE Class 10
history notes titled 'The Cold War (1945–1991)'. Split the image down the middle:
Left side (Blue): USA – Eagle symbol – Capitalism – Democracy – NATO – 'Western Bloc'
Right side (Red): USSR – Sickle & Hammer – Communism – Warsaw Pact – 'Eastern Bloc'
In the middle: A brick wall (Berlin Wall) with cracks. Below it: Arms Race, Space Race, Proxy Wars
(Korea, Vietnam), Espionage (CIA vs KGB)
Bottom text: 'Cold War ended with USSR dissolution in 1991'. Educational, bold, striking design."
🌏 PART 4: The United Nations (UN)
The United Nations was founded on 24 October 1945 (UN Day) by 51
original member nations to replace the failed League of Nations and to maintain international
peace and security.
💡 Key Information
HQ: New York City, USA | Current members: 193 nations | Secretary-General heads the UN Secretariat.
Objectives (Purposes) of the United Nations
- To maintain international peace and security.
- To develop friendly relations among nations.
- To achieve international cooperation in solving humanitarian, cultural, and economic
problems.
- To promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
- To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in achieving these goals.
Principal Organs of the UN (Relevant to ICSE Syllabus)
A. The General Assembly
- Consists of all member states (currently 193) — each has one vote, regardless of size
or power.
- Meets in regular annual sessions (September–December) and special sessions.
- Discusses any international issue within the scope of the UN Charter.
- Important decisions (on peace, budget, new members) require a 2/3rd majority; routine
matters require a simple majority.
- Called the "Parliament of Nations" — but its resolutions are NOT legally binding on
members (except budgetary ones).
- Elects non-permanent members of the Security Council, approves the UN budget, and elects judges to the
International Court of Justice.
B. The Security Council
- The primary organ responsible for maintaining international peace and security.
- Consists of 15 members total:
- 5 Permanent Members (P5): USA,
UK, France, Russia, China — these members hold VETO power.
- 10 Non-Permanent Members: Elected
by the General Assembly for 2-year terms on a regional rotation basis.
- Veto Power: Any one of the 5 permanent members can veto (block) any substantive
resolution — this means a resolution cannot pass if even ONE of the P5 votes against it.
- Security Council resolutions on peace and security matters are legally binding on all
member states.
- Can impose sanctions, authorize military action, and deploy peacekeeping forces.
C. The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
- The principal judicial organ of the UN. Located in The Hague,
Netherlands.
- Consists of 15 judges elected jointly by the General Assembly and Security Council for
9-year terms.
- Settles legal disputes between states (not individuals or organizations).
- Gives advisory opinions to the UN General Assembly and Security Council on legal
questions.
- ICJ decisions are binding on the parties involved in a case, but the Court has no
enforcement mechanism of its own — it depends on the Security Council to enforce its rulings.
Important UN Agencies and Their Functions
| Agency |
Full Name |
Headquarters |
Main Function |
| UNICEF |
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund |
New York, USA |
Works for child welfare, nutrition, education, health, and protection of children's rights
worldwide |
| WHO |
World Health Organization |
Geneva, Switzerland |
Promotes global public health; fights epidemics and diseases; sets international health
standards |
| UNESCO |
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |
Paris, France |
Promotes education, science, culture, and communication worldwide; protects World Heritage Sites
|
📷 Image: The United Nations Headquarters – New York
A photograph or illustration of the UN Headquarters complex in Manhattan, New York,
with the UN flag in front.
AI Prompt: "Create a clean, professional educational illustration of the United
Nations Headquarters building in New York City, USA. Show the distinctive tall glass secretariat
building alongside the General Assembly dome building. Include the UN flag (light blue with the world
map emblem) flying prominently in the front. Add the label 'United Nations Headquarters – New York,
USA'. Style: educational illustration, clean lines, suitable for ICSE Class 10 history notes."
🌏 PART 6: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was a group of nations that chose NOT to
align with either the USA-led Western bloc or the USSR-led Eastern bloc during the Cold War.
These nations remained neutral and independent in their foreign policy.
Meaning and Objectives of NAM
- NAM was formally established at the First Non-Aligned Conference (Belgrade, Yugoslavia,
1961), attended by 25 countries.
- Key Objectives:
- To preserve the sovereignty and independence of
newly decolonized nations.
- To avoid joining military alliances of either
superpower bloc.
- To promote peaceful coexistence, disarmament, and
economic development.
- To support anti-colonial independence movements
worldwide.
Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence)
The foundation of NAM's foreign policy philosophy was the Panchsheel, first agreed between
India and China in 1954:
- Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
- Mutual non-aggression.
- Non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
- Equality and mutual benefit in relations.
- Peaceful coexistence.
Architects of NAM
| Leader |
Country |
Contribution |
| Jawaharlal Nehru |
India |
Leading philosopher and architect of NAM; championed the idea of non-alignment as a principled
foreign policy for newly independent nations |
| Josip Broz Tito |
Yugoslavia |
Defied Soviet control; hosted the First NAM Conference in Belgrade (1961) |
| Gamal Abdel Nasser |
Egypt |
Led Egypt's independent foreign policy; key figure in the Arab world's non-alignment |
| Kwame Nkrumah |
Ghana |
United African nations under NAM principles; opposed neo-colonialism |
| Sukarno |
Indonesia |
Hosted the Bandung Conference (1955) — a precursor to NAM with 29 Asian and
African nations |
📜 PART 7: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a landmark document adopted by the
United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948. It is the first global statement of
the basic rights and freedoms to which all human beings are entitled, regardless of nationality, race,
religion, or gender.
- The UDHR was drafted by a committee chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt (former US First
Lady).
- It contains 30 Articles covering civil, political, economic, social, and cultural
rights.
- Key rights include: right to life, right to equality before law, freedom from slavery and torture,
freedom of speech, right to education, right to work, and freedom of thought and religion.
- Though the UDHR is not legally binding, it has served as the moral foundation for many
national constitutions and international treaties on human rights.
- 10 December is observed as Human Rights Day worldwide.
📝 Quick Revision – Key Facts
| Topic |
Key Fact |
| Fascism founded |
Italy, 1919; Mussolini; "Il Duce" |
| March on Rome |
October 1922; Mussolini became PM |
| Hitler became Chancellor |
January 1933; Nazi Party |
| WWII start |
1 September 1939; Germany invaded Poland; Britain/France declared war 3 September 1939 |
| Pearl Harbour attack |
7 December 1941; Japan attacked USA; USA joined war |
| Hiroshima bomb |
6 August 1945 |
| Nagasaki bomb |
9 August 1945 |
| Germany surrendered |
7 May 1945 (V-E Day) |
| Japan surrendered |
15 August 1945 (V-J Day) |
| UN founded |
24 October 1945 (UN Day); 51 original members |
| UN HQ |
New York City, USA |
| Security Council |
15 members: 5 permanent (Veto) + 10 non-permanent |
| Veto Power (P5) |
USA, UK, France, Russia, China |
| ICJ |
15 judges; The Hague, Netherlands; settles disputes between STATES |
| UNICEF HQ |
New York, USA — child welfare |
| WHO HQ |
Geneva, Switzerland — global health |
| UNESCO HQ |
Paris, France — education, science, culture |
| Cold War period |
~1945–1991; USA (West) vs USSR (East) |
| Policy of Appeasement |
Giving in to Hitler's demands e.g. Munich Agreement (1938) |
| League of Nations failure |
USA didn't join; no army; couldn't stop aggression |
⚠️ Most Frequently Asked in ICSE Board Exams
- What were the causes for the rise of Fascism in Italy? (Any 4)
- What were the causes for the rise of Nazism in Germany?
- Compare the ideologies of Mussolini and Hitler.
- What were the causes of World War II? (Mention Versailles, Appeasement, League of Nations failure,
Pearl Harbour)
- What were the consequences of World War II?
- What are the objectives of the United Nations?
- Explain the composition and functions of the Security Council.
- What is the role of the General Assembly in the UN?
- What are the functions of UNICEF, WHO, and UNESCO?
- What is the Cold War? (Brief explanation)
🌟 Chapter Summary
- Fascism (Italy): Mussolini, 1919; March on Rome 1922; totalitarian, nationalist,
anti-communist. Nazism (Germany): Hitler, January 1933; added racial ideology
(Aryan supremacy, Holocaust).
- WWII Causes: Humiliation of Versailles; rise of dictators; Policy of Appeasement;
failure of League of Nations; Japanese aggression; Hitler invaded Poland (Sept 1939).
- WWII ended: Germany surrendered (7 May 1945); Hiroshima (6 Aug) + Nagasaki (9 Aug)
→ Japan surrendered (15 Aug 1945).
- WWII Consequences: 70 million deaths; Formation of UN; Cold War; nuclear age;
decolonization.
- Cold War: USA (Capitalism) vs USSR (Communism), ~1945–1991. No direct war — arms
race, proxy wars, propaganda.
- UN (1945): 51 founding members; HQ New York; General Assembly (all states, 1 vote);
Security Council (15 members, P5 with veto); ICJ (The Hague, Netherlands).
- Key UN Agencies: UNICEF (children – New York), WHO (health – Geneva), UNESCO
(education/culture – Paris).
