🌍 Introduction

The Harappan Civilisation (also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation) is one of the world's earliest urban civilisations, flourishing between approximately 3000 BCE and 1500 BCE. It was discovered in the 1920s when archaeologists excavated the sites of Harappa (in present-day Pakistan) and Mohenjo-daro. The civilisation extended over a vast area covering parts of present-day India and Pakistan.

📜 PART 1: Sources of Knowledge

Since no one has yet deciphered the Harappan script, our knowledge comes entirely from archaeological sources:

Key Sources

• The Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): A large, watertight brick tank (12m × 7m × 2.4m), possibly used for ritual purification. Considered the most striking single structure of the civilisation. It had galleries and rooms around it.
• The Citadel (at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa): A raised, fortified platform in the western part of each city. It housed public buildings, granaries, and the Great Bath. It was separate from the lower town where ordinary people lived.
• Seals: Over 2,000 seals excavated, made of steatite (soapstone). They depict animals (the humped bull, unicorn, rhinoceros, elephant) and bear pictographic inscriptions. Used for trade and identification of merchants. The Pashupati seal (with a three-faced figure surrounded by animals, possibly a proto-Shiva) is notable.
• The Bearded Man (Priest-King) sculpture: A famous soapstone bust from Mohenjo-daro showing a man with a flowing beard and a robe decorated with trefoil patterns. Possibly a priest or king.
• The Dancing Girl: A small bronze figurine (10.8 cm) from Mohenjo-daro depicting a young girl in a confident dancing pose. Evidence of the lost-wax (cire perdue) technique of bronze casting.
• Dockyard (Lothal, Gujarat): Evidence of a sophisticated dockyard (214m × 37m), indicating overseas trade.
• Granaries: Large structures for storing grain found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro — evidence of a planned economy.
• Script: Over 4,000 specimens of Harappan writing exist, written from right to left (boustrophedon in some cases). It has not been deciphered yet. It was pictographic.

🏙️ PART 2: Town Planning

The most remarkable feature of the Harappan Civilisation was its advanced, systematic town planning — unmatched in the ancient world.

Features of Town Planning

• Grid Pattern: Cities were laid out on a precise grid pattern — streets ran at right angles to each other, dividing the city into blocks. Main roads were wide (up to 9 metres), running north-south and east-west.
• Two-Part City Structure: Each major city had (1) a Citadel — a raised mound in the west, housing public buildings and possibly rulers/priests; and (2) the Lower Town in the east, where ordinary citizens lived in brick houses.
• Burnt-Brick Houses: Houses were built with standardised, kiln-fired bricks (ratio 1:2:4). Most had multiple rooms, a central courtyard, and their own wells and bathrooms.
• Underground Drainage System: The most advanced feature — an underground network of covered drains ran beneath every street. Household drains connected to main drains via manholes (inspection holes). This is unique for the ancient world and shows a very high level of civic management.
• Public Wells and Water Supply: Public wells were placed at intersections. Harappa had over 700 wells.
• No temples or palaces identified: Unlike Mesopotamia and Egypt, no definite temple or royal palace has been found, suggesting a different social structure — possibly governed by merchants or priests.

💰 PART 3: Trade and Economy

Internal Trade

• Active trade between cities. Goods included cotton (the Harappans were the first to grow cotton), wheat, barley, pottery, jewellery, and tools.
• Standardised weights and measures (in binary and decimal ratios) were used — evidence of regulated trade.

External / Foreign Trade

• Traded with Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), known as Meluhha in Mesopotamian records, and possibly with Egypt and the Persian Gulf region.
• Exports: Cotton, beads, copper, lapis lazuli, timber. Imports: Silver, tin, gold.
• The dockyard at Lothal is direct evidence of maritime trade. Seals found in Mesopotamia confirm trade links.

🎨 PART 4: Art and Craft

Pottery

• Red or buff-coloured pottery with black geometric designs — fish, peacocks, trees. Made on the potter's wheel — very uniform in quality, suggesting specialisation.

Sculpture and Figurines

• Stone sculptures: The Priest-King bust is the most famous.
• Bronze casting: The Dancing Girl (lost-wax method), bronze bullock-carts, etc.
• Terracotta figurines: Hundreds found — mother goddess figures, animals, toys (carts with wheels, whistles shaped like birds).

Jewellery and Beadwork

• Harappans made exquisite jewellery from gold, silver, faience, carnelian, lapis lazuli. Evidence of skilled artisans (goldsmiths, bead-makers).
• Bead-making factory discovered at Chanhudaro.

📉 PART 5: Decline of the Harappan Civilisation

The civilisation declined around 1900–1500 BCE. No single definitive cause is accepted; scholars propose several theories:

• Aryan Invasion / Migration Theory: Proposed by Mortimer Wheeler — Aryans invaded and destroyed the cities. Evidence: Skeletal remains found at Mohenjo-daro (though now disputed). This theory is now largely rejected or downplayed.
• Natural Disasters: Floods from the Indus River — Mohenjo-daro shows signs of repeated flooding. Tectonic activity may have altered river courses.
• Drying of the Saraswati River: The mythical river Saraswati (identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra) may have dried up due to tectonic shifts, disrupting agriculture in eastern sites.
• Climate Change / Drought: Reduced monsoon rainfall leading to desertification (supported by environmental data).
• Deforestation: Over-use of wood to fire bricks may have led to deforestation and ecological collapse.
• Epidemic Disease: Skeletal evidence of disease has been found.

📝 Quick Revision – Key Facts

Topic	Key Fact
Harappan Civilisation period	~3000–1500 BCE (Mature phase: 2600–1900 BCE)
Discovery year	1920s — Harappa (Daya Ram Sahni, 1921), Mohenjo-daro (R.D. Banerji, 1922)
Great Bath location	Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan)
Dockyard	Lothal, Gujarat
Dancing Girl material	Bronze (lost-wax method)
Priest-King material	Steatite / soapstone
Trade partner	Mesopotamia (called Meluhha)
Script	Pictographic; written right-to-left; NOT deciphered
First crop grown	Cotton — Harappans were the first in the world
Brick ratio	1:2:4 (standardised)